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Law of Insurance

PROBATION OF OFFENDERS

probation means ‘I prove my worth’ and is derived from the Latin word ‘ probare‘ meaning ‘tested’ or ‘proved’. The legal concept of probation is conditional suspension of sentence and it is a part of the decision making process of the judge at the time of sentencing. Thus probation is a method of penal non-institutional treatment of offenders developed as an alternative to imprisonment out of a realization that short-term imprisonment is harmful and ineffective. There is no precise legislative definition of the term probation. Neither the Criminal Procedure Code 1973 nor the Probation of Offenders Act 1958 define what probation means. Both these enactments use the words „release on probation of good conduct‟ without actually defining the term.

The object is to reform and reintegrate offenders without submitting them to the stigma of prison life. It is applicable against those offenders who are redeemable such as young offenders and first-time offenders where criminal tendencies are not deep-rooted.

The Probation of Offenders Act 1958 and Criminal Procedure Code – Sec..360 and 361. In Probation sentencing, when any convicted person is found fit to be released on probation the court may not pronounce any sentence against him but he may be released on probation for good conduct. In such a situation if the person violates the terms and conditions of probation or he is not reformed, the court then considers the sentence to be imposed

Power of court to release certain offenders on probation of good conduct

Section 4 of the Act deals with the power of the court to release certain offenders on probation for good conduct. An offender may be released on probation if the following conditions are fulfilled:

 (i) Any person is found guilty of having committed an offense; 

(ii) The offense so committed must not be punishable with death or imprisonment for life; 

(iii)The court by which the person is found guilty is of the opinion that it is expedient to release him on probation of good conduct;

 (iv)The court may form such an opinion having regard to (i) the circumstances of the case, (ii) the nature of the offense, and (iii) the character of the offender.

 If the above conditions are fulfilled, the court may, instead of sentencing him at once to any punishment, direct that the offender should be released on entering into a bond to appear and receive a sentence when called upon during the period of probation. The bond so directed may be taken with or without securities. The period of probation will be such as the court may direct but it will not exceed three years.

BAIL

 ‘Bail’ is derived from the old French verb ‘ballier’ meaning to ‘give or deliver’.

Bail has not been defined in the Code of Criminal Procedure, but the dictionary meaning of Bail is the security with securities for the prisoners’ appearance to answer the charge at a specified time and place.  The bail is the process by which a person is released from custody while the judicial release from custodial juris.

 In simple words, Bail is the process of release under the guarantee that a person arrested on a criminal charge will appear for trial for examination when duly requested if he is temporarily released.  According to Section 439(2) the code of criminal procedure, the High Court or Court of Session may direct that any person who has been released on bail under chapter XXXIII (i.e., relating to bail) be arrested and committed to custody.

Objective

The primary objective of arrest is to ensure that the accused in a criminal case appears before the court for the conveyance of justice. However, if the person’s presence can be guaranteed for the court trial without putting the person in jail, it would be unfair and unjust to violate a person’s liberty. Thus, bail can be granted as a conditional liberty to the accused.

Types Of Bail 

There are commonly 3 types of bail in India which a person can apply depending upon the stage of the criminal matter:

  1. Regular Bail: A regular bail can be granted to a person who has already been arrested and kept in police custody. A person can file a bail application for regular bail under Section 437 and 439 of the CrPC.
  2. Interim Bail: Interim bail is a bail granted for a short period of time. Interim bail is granted to an accused before the hearing for the grant of regular bail or anticipatory bail.

Anticipatory Bail: A person who discerns that he may be arrested by the police for a non-bailable offense, can file an application for anticipatory bail. It is like an advance bail obtained under Section 438 of the Cr PC. A bail under Section 438 is a bail before arrest and a person cannot be arrested by the police if the anticipatory bail has been granted by the court.

Conditions For Bail In Bailable Offenses

Section 436 of the CrPC lays down that a person accused of any bailable offense under the IPC can be released on bail.  Bailable offenses under the IPC include unlawful assembly (Section 144 of CrPC), payment of bribe during elections, fabrication of false evidence, sale of poisonous food or drink knowingly, participation in riots, being armed with deadly weapon, furnishing false information, threat of injury to public servant, selling adulterated drug, selling obscene book, causing death by negligence (Section 304A), stalking, criminal defamation, etc.

However, there are certain conditions on which a bail can be granted in case the person is arrested or is likely to be arrested for a bailable offense:

  1. There are sufficient reasons to believe that the accused has not committed the offense.
  2. If, as per the court, there is sufficient reason to conduct further enquiry in the matter.
  3. The person is not accused of any crime for which is punishable with death, imprisonment for life or imprisonment up to 10 years.

Conditions For Bail In Non-Bailable Offenses

An accused does not have the right to apply for bail in case of a non-bailable offense. The power to release a person on bail in a non-bailable offense lies with the court. Section 437 of the CrPC lays down the power of court to grant a bail to a person even in a non-bailable offense.

Non-bailable offences under the I.P.C include sedition, waging or attempting to wage war against the government, counterfeit of Indian currency, adulteration of drug, murder (Section 302), culpable homicide not amounting to murder (Section 304), dowry death (Section 304B), abatement of suicide, abetment of suicide, abduction of child under 10, trafficking of person, rape (Section 376), cruelty by husband or his relatives (Section 498A), etc. The conditions on which the court grants a bail in a non-bailable offense are as follows:

  1. If the accused is a woman or child, bail can be granted in a non-bailable matter.
  2. If there is a lack of adequate evidence, the court can grant a bail in non-bailable offense on discretion.
  3. If there is a delay in registering the FIR by the complainant.
  4. If the person accused is physically or gravely sick.
  5. If there is some corroboration as to personal animosity between the accused and the person who filed the criminal matter.

Cancellation Of Bail

The court has the power to cancel a bail granted even at a later stage. The power of the court is laid down under Section 437(5) and 439(2) of the CrPC. The court can cancel the bail granted by it and give directions for the arrest of the person in police custody. However, the court does not have the power to cancel a bail granted by a police officer.

FIR 

FIR (First Information Report) is a report which comes under criminal procedure code (C.r.pc) section 154 in 1973. An FIR can be registered only for cognizable offenses. Cognizable offenses are those offenses in which the officer-in-charge of a police station can arrest a person without a warrant. It is recorded in the manner under section 154 of c.r.pc. Every police station has a jurisdictional area for which they can take up the investigation if an offense commission of cognizable offense comes under their area of jurisdiction.

First Information Report (FIR) is a written document prepared by the police when they receive information about the commission of a cognizable offense. It is a report of information that reaches the police first at that point in time and that is why it is called the First Information Report. A cognizable offense is one in which the police may arrest a person without a warrant. They are authorized to start an investigation into a cognizable case on their own and do not require any orders from the court to do so. Non-cognizable Offense A non-cognizable offense is an offense in which a police officer has no authority to arrest without a warrant. The police cannot investigate such an offense without the court’s permission.

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF F.I.R.

It is information that is given at the first stage to the Police Officer In- charge of the Police station. The information must relate to a cognizable offense. It is on the basis of this information that investigation into the offense commences. The FIR could be in any type i.e. X’, Titten, or oral. It can also be given on the telephone. Sunil v/s State of MP, 1997.It is essential that a detailed explanation of the incident should be given in the FIR. In the case of Navratan Mahanto v/s State of Bihar-1980, the court observed that the prosecution cannot be dismissed merely on the basis that FIR does not contain a complete explanation of happening as only the gist of the happening in a factual position needs to be mentioned.

Section 154 says- As soon as the Officer-in-charge receives information of commission of a cognizable offense, entry to this effect shall & immediately be made in the Register maintained for this purpose without delay. If any information is given orally, it should be recorded and then read and obtained the signature of the person giving information. In the case of State of A.P v/s P. Ramulu: 1993, the court observed that FIR cannot be refused to be recorded on the ground that the offense was committed not within the jurisdiction There should be no delay in registering FIR.

Who Can File an FIR

First Information Report (FIR) can be filed by any person. He need not necessarily be the victim or the injured or an eye-witness. First Information Report may be merely hearsay and need not necessarily be given by the person who has first hand knowledge of the facts.

Where to file an FIR

An FIR can be filed in the police station of the concerned area in whose jurisdiction the offense has occurred. The first is to obtain information about the alleged criminal activity so as to be able to take suitable steps for tracing and bringing to book the guilty person.

Why FIR should be filed promptly

This is the golden principle of law prescribed in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 that the First Information Report should always be filed promptly and without wasting any time. Such a report gains maximum credibility and is always welcome and appreciated by the courts.

According to the Supreme Court, the FIR recorded promptly before the time afforded to embellish or do away with the evidence is useful. It eliminates the possible chance of giving rise to suspicion.

Custom as a source of law

Custom as a source of law

Custom refers to the code of conduct that has the express approval of the community that observes it. In primitive societies, there were no institutions that acted as authority over the people. This led to people organizing themselves to form cohesive groups in order to maintain fairness, equality, and liberty. They started developing rules with coordinated efforts to make decisions. They eventually started recognising the traditions and rituals practiced by the community routinely and formed a systematized form of social regulation. In India, laws relating to marriage and divorce are mostly developed from customs followed by different religious communities. Additionally, several communities belonging to the Scheduled Tribes category have their own customs related to marriage. As a result of that Section 2(2) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 has exempted Scheduled Tribes from the application of this Act. 

Requisites of a valid custom

  1. Reasonability: The custom must be reasonable or practical and must conform with the basic morality prevailing in the modern-day society. 
  2. Antiquity: It must have been practiced for time immemorial. 
  3. Certainty: The custom must be clear and unambiguous on how it should be practiced.  
  4. Conformity with statutes: No custom must go against the law of the land. 
  5. Continuity in practice: Not only the custom must be practiced for time immemorial, but it should also be practiced without interruption. 
  6. Must not be in opposition to public policy: The custom must adhere to the public policy of the state. 
  7. Must be general or universal: There must be unanimity in the opinion of the community or place in which it is practiced. Hence, it should be universal or general in its application. 

Types of customs 

  1. Customs without a binding obligation 

There are customs that are followed in society that do not have a legal binding force. Such customs are related to clothing, marriage, etc. Not abiding by such customs can only result in a social boycott and not legal consequences. 

  1. Customs with a binding obligation

Customs that are meant to be followed by law are called customs with a binding obligation. They are not related to social conventions or traditions. There are mainly two types of customs with binding obligations- Legal customs and Conventional customs. 

  1. Legal customs: Legal customs are absolute in sanction. They are obligatory in nature and attract legal consequences if not followed. Two types of legal customs are general customs and local customs. General customs are enforced throughout the territory of a state. Local customs on the other hand operate only in particular localities.

      2 ..Conventional customs: Conventional customs are those customs   that are enforceable only on their acceptance through an agreement. Such a custom is only enforceable on the people who are parties to the agreement incorporating it. Two types of conventional customs are general conventional customs and local conventional customs. General Conventional Customs are practiced throughout a territory. Local Conventional Customs on the other hand is restricted to a particular place or to a particular trade or transaction. 

Difference between custom and prescription 

The main difference between the two is that custom gives rise to law and prescription gives rise to a right. Custom is generally observed as a course of conduct and is legally enforceable. Prescription refers to the acquisition of a right or title. When local custom applies to society, the prescription is applicable only to a particular person. For example, when a person X’s forefathers have been grazing their cattle on a particular land for years without restriction, X acquires the same right to graze his cattle on the land. The right acquired by X is called a prescription. For a prescription to be valid, it must be practised from time immemorial. In India, uninterrupted enjoyment for 20 years is essential to acquire a right to light and air as per the Indian Easements Act, 1882.

Legislation as a source of law

Legislation as a source of law

Legislation refers to the rules or laws enacted by the legislative organ of the government. It is one of the most important sources of law in jurisprudence. The word legislation is derived from the words legis and latum, where legis means law and latum means making. 

Types of legislation 

According to Salmond, legislation can be classified into two types- Supreme and Subordinate. 

  1. Supreme legislation 

Legislation is said to be supreme when it is enacted by a supreme or sovereign law-making body. The body must be powerful to the extent that the rules or laws enacted by it cannot be annulled or modified by another body. Indian Parliament cannot be said to be a sovereign law-making body as the laws passed by the parliament can be challenged in the courts. The British Parliament, on the other hand, can be said to be a sovereign law-making body since the validity of laws passed by it cannot be challenged in any court. 

  1. Subordinate legislation 

Legislation enacted by a subordinate law-making body is said to be subordinate legislation. The subordinate body must have derived its law-making authority from a sovereign law-making body. It is subject to the control of the supreme legislative body. The following are the different kinds of subordinate legislation: 

  • Executive legislation: This is a form of subordinate legislation where the executive is granted or conferred certain rule-making powers in order to carry out the intentions of the legislature. 
  • Colonial legislation: Many territories across the globe were colonized by Britain and such territories were called colonies. The legislation passed by the legislature of such colonies was subject to the control of the British Parliament. 
  • Judicial legislation: Courts also have a role in enacting laws that aid in regulating the internal affairs and functioning of courts. 
  • Municipal legislation: Municipal authorities also possess the law-making power as they enact bye-laws. 
  • Autonomous legislation: Another kind of legislation is autonomous legislation, which is concerned with bodies like universities, corporations, clubs, etc. 

Delegated legislation: Sometimes legislative powers may be delegated to certain bodies by the parliament through principal legislation. A principal act may create subsidiary legislation that can make laws as provided in the principal legislation.

precedents and it kinds 

The case law is a common law pillar. This is an important process for achieving common law results. The doctrine of precedent focuses on Ratio decidendi and Obiter Dictum. The purpose of my project is to explain why case law is important in the legal system, what else can be done to create case law, and what other jurisprudence say about case law. How does Stare Decision differ from the precedent, and what are their doctrines.

The types of case are authoritative, persuasive, original, and declarative, and what are their uses and when? Donohue v. Stevenson [1932] UKHL 100, explains the difference between Ratio Decisionendi and Obiter Dictum.

Types of precedents / Kinds of Precedents

Authoritative and Persuasive

Authoritative precedents are those precedents that must be followed by subordinate courts whether they approve of it or not. They create direct and definite rules of law. They fall into the category of legal sources of law. Persuasive precedents on the other hand do not create a binding obligation on the judges. Persuasive precedents can be applied as per the discretion of the judge. 

Authoritative precedents can be classified into the following two types: 

Absolute authoritative

An absolutely authoritative precedent is binding on subordinate courts in an absolute manner and it cannot be disobeyed even if it is wrong. 

Conditional authoritative

A conditionally authoritative precedent is binding on other judges but it can be disregarded in certain special circumstances as long as the judge shows the reason for doing so. 

Original and Declaratory 

According to Salmond, a declaratory precedent is a precedent that simply declares an already existing law in a judgement. It is a mere application of law. An original precedent creates and applies a new law. 

Factors increasing the authority of a precedent 

  1. The number of judges constituting the bench that makes the decision. 
  2. A unanimous decision has more weight. 
  3. Approval by other courts, especially the higher courts. 
  4. The enactment of a statute that carries the same law subsequently. 

Factors decreasing the authority of a precedent 

  1. Abrogation of judgement by reversal or overrule of a higher court. 
  2. Abrogation of judgement by a statutory rule enacted subsequently. 
  3. Affirmation or reversal of decision on a different ground. 
  4. Inconsistency with the previous decision of a higher court. 
  5. Inconsistency with previous decisions of the court of the same rank. 
  6. Inconsistency with already existing statutory rules. 
  7. Erroneous decision.

Custom as a source of law

Custom refers to the code of conduct that has the express approval of the community that observes it. In primitive societies, there were no institutions that acted as authority over the people. This led to people organizing themselves to form cohesive groups in order to maintain fairness, equality, and liberty. They started developing rules with coordinated efforts to make decisions. They eventually started recognising the traditions and rituals practiced by the community routinely and formed a systematized form of social regulation. In India, laws relating to marriage and divorce are mostly developed from customs followed by different religious communities. Additionally, several communities belonging to the Scheduled Tribes category have their own customs related to marriage. As a result of that Section 2(2) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 has exempted Scheduled Tribes from the application of this Act. 

Requisites of a valid custom

  1. Reasonability: The custom must be reasonable or practical and must conform with the basic morality prevailing in the modern-day society. 
  2. Antiquity: It must have been practiced for time immemorial. 
  3. Certainty: The custom must be clear and unambiguous on how it should be practiced.  
  4. Conformity with statutes: No custom must go against the law of the land. 
  5. Continuity in practice: Not only the custom must be practiced for time immemorial, but it should also be practiced without interruption. 
  6. Must not be in opposition to public policy: The custom must adhere to the public policy of the state. 
  7. Must be general or universal: There must be unanimity in the opinion of the community or place in which it is practiced. Hence, it should be universal or general in its application. 

Sources of Law

John Salmond, a legal scholar renowned for his ideologies on law in the field of jurisprudence, classified the sources of law into mainly two categories,i.e., material sources and formal sources.

Material sources

Material sources of law are those sources from which the law gets its content or matter, but not its validity. There are two types of material sources which are legal sources and historical sources. 

Legal sources 

Legal sources are the instruments used by the state which create legal rules. They are authoritative in nature and followed by courts of law. These are the sources or instruments that permit newer legal principles to be created. According to Salmond, legal sources of English law can be further classified into four categories- 

  • Legislation, 
  • Precedent, 
  • Customary law, and
  • Conventional law. 

Historical sources

Historical sources are sources that influence the development of law without giving effect to its validity or authority. These sources influence legal rules indirectly. The difference between legal and historical sources is that all laws have a historical source but they may or may not have a legal source. Decisions given by foreign courts serve as an example for this kind of source.  

Definitions of law:-

It is very difficult to define the term law. Many Jurists attempted to define the term law. For the Purpose of clarity, some of the definitions given by Jurists in different Periods are categorized as follows. (I) Idealistic Definitions:- Romans and other ancient Jurists defined law in its idealistic nature. Roman Justinian’s defined law in the light of its idealistic nature. (a) Salmond: – According to salmond “the law may be defined as the body of principles recognized and applied by the state in the administration of Justice.

According to Austin, a law, in the strict sense, is a general command of the sovereign individual or the sovereign body. Issued to those in subjectivity and enforced by the physical power of the state. According to Austin “law is an aggregate of rules set by men politically superior or sovereign to men as politically subject.” Austin says, “A law is command which obliges a person or persons to a course of conduct.